Positivism and its Critique
Table of Contents
What is Positivism?
- Positivism is defined as “a set of ideas which speaks that the behaviour of man can be studied in the same way as the behaviour of matters in natural sciences”.
- Positivism is a philosophical thought, where assertions are validated by the use of logic, science, mathematics, facts etc.
- It is a set of philosophical approaches that seeks to apply scientific principles and methods, drawn from the natural sciences, to the social phenomena.
- The emergence of positivism owes to the changing socio-economic condition of the 19th century Europe, rapid technological development, growing complexity and development in the researches in the field of Physics, Biology etc.
- Extraordinary development in the area of natural sciences had led to the growing conviction among scientists to win over the nature created problem.
- This conviction to solve the misery of people encouraged them to think along the line of natural science and thereby Positivism.
Thinker’s View
- Kieran Egan argues that Positivism can be traced to the philosophy side of what Plato described as “the quarrel between philosophy and poetry”, later reformulated by Wilhelm Dilthey as “the quarrel between the natural sciences and the humanities”.
- Claude-Henri Saint-Simon is known as the originator of positivism. He used research to find evidence that could strengthen his commitment to fairness and social equality.
- It got formal recognition with the publication of the book Cours de philosophies positive and society positive by Auguste Comte.
- Auguste Comte is of the view that “society, like the physical world, operates according to general laws”.
- Durkheim is of the opinion that “the study of society should be founded on an examination of facts”.
Main Characteristics of Positivism
Theory and Model Building for Generalization: Positivism advocates that sociology, like natural sciences, can create theories and models to generalize human behaviour. These generalizations are law-like assertions, which means that they are consistent across various contexts and can predict future events.
- Example: Emile Durkheim’s study of suicide is a classic example. He identified social factors like integration and regulation that could explain different suicide rates across societies, aiming to establish a general theory of social integration and its effects on individual behaviour.
Rejection of Normative Questions: Positivism avoids questions involving values or morals, focusing solely on empirical facts. Normative questions (such as “what should be” or “what is good”) are seen as irrelevant in a scientific study of society.
- Example: In studying crime, a positivist would examine the patterns and causes of crime using empirical data, rather than questioning the moral aspects of punishment or debating what the criminal justice system “should” aim for.
Positive, Testable Questions: Positivism stresses the need for questions that can be tested by data. A “positive” question is one that can be empirically tested, leading to a clear conclusion of being true or false.
- Example: A positivist might ask, “Is there a correlation between education level and income?” This question can be tested with data on education and income, allowing for an objective analysis and conclusion.
“Facts Speak Themselves” Philosophy: Positivists believe that facts, when observed objectively, can lead to reliable conclusions without the interference of personal bias or subjective interpretation.
- Example: In medical sociology, data showing the prevalence of certain diseases in specific demographics can be taken as objective facts, helping researchers analyse the distribution and causes of diseases without subjective interpretation.
Data and Facts for Validation: Positivism relies on empirical evidence to validate assertions. For any theory to be accepted, it must be backed by observable and measurable data.
- Example: In economics, the relationship between supply and demand is validated through empirical data showing how price changes impact quantity supplied and demanded.
Unity of Method with Natural Sciences: Positivists argue that social sciences should employ the same methods as natural sciences, such as observation, hypothesis formulation, experimentation, and data collection.
- Example: When studying group dynamics, a sociologist might employ experiments similar to those used in psychology, such as structured observation or controlled settings to understand human interactions.
Objectivity and Value Neutrality: Positivism advocates for research that is free from personal biases and values. Objectivity ensures that research findings are not influenced by the researcher’s personal views or societal values.
- Example: Max Weber’s concept of “value-free sociology” aligns with this, where researchers are urged to keep personal beliefs separate from their analysis. If a sociologist studies income inequality, they should report findings objectively rather than framing the data with their own views on fairness or justice.
Key Principles of Positivism
Objectivism: Positivism asserts that reality is objective and independent of individual perceptions or interpretations. It believes in absolute truths that exist outside of subjective influence.
- Example: In studying social issues like poverty, a positivist would assume that poverty exists as an objective condition that can be observed and measured, rather than something defined by individual perspectives or cultural contexts.
Empiricism: Empiricism is the belief that knowledge comes from sensory experience—through observation and evidence collected via the senses, rather than through abstract reasoning or intuition.
- Example: In the field of sociology, researchers might rely on surveys, experiments, and observational studies to gather data about social behaviour, ensuring their conclusions are grounded in empirical evidence rather than assumptions.
Quantitativism: Positivism places a high value on quantitative data, favouring accuracy, precision, and measurable outcomes. This focus on numbers and metrics aims to make research more replicable and consistent.
- Example: A positivist approach to studying crime rates would involve collecting statistical data on crime occurrences, arrests, and sentencing, rather than relying solely on qualitative descriptions of criminal behaviour.
Value-neutrality: This principle insists that researchers should separate facts from values, maintaining neutrality and objectivity in their work. Positivists argue that personal biases or moral judgments should not interfere with scientific inquiry.
- Example: In analysing economic inequality, a positivist would present data on income distribution without interjecting personal opinions on fairness or justice, focusing solely on objective reporting.
Anti-rationalism: Positivism generally dismisses the idea that knowledge comes purely from reason or intuition, emphasizing observable evidence instead. It holds that empirical data is more reliable than reasoned argument alone.
- Example: Instead of relying on theoretical speculation about social interactions, a positivist might conduct an experiment or survey to understand patterns in social behaviour, favouring data over abstract reasoning.
Universality of Science: Positivism maintains that the methods used in physical sciences, such as controlled experiments and statistical analysis, are applicable to the social sciences as well. This principle asserts that social phenomena can be studied with the same rigor as natural phenomena.
- Example: Emile Durkheim’s use of statistical analysis to study suicide rates reflects this principle. He applied a scientific, quantitative method similar to those used in natural sciences to understand social issues.
Determinism: Positivism holds that social phenomena are governed by causal laws, similar to natural laws. Determinism suggests that, by discovering these laws, it’s possible to predict and control social outcomes.
- Example: In sociology, a determinist might argue that economic factors like poverty and unemployment are direct causes of crime rates. Understanding these causal relationships could, theoretically, allow societies to predict and reduce crime through economic policy.
These principles form the foundation of positivism, shaping its approach to scientific inquiry in the social sciences. By emphasizing objectivity, measurement, and causality, positivism aims to bring the same empirical rigor found in natural sciences to the study of society.
Critique of Positivism
The ideology and methodology of positivism is being criticized mainly by
- Phenomenology
- Frankfurt school
- The feminist school
Phenomenological Approach
- It is critical to positivism on account of the character of the subject matter of natural science and social science.
- Peter Berger contended that facts never fall from sky, but develop in a particular context.
- It argues that the subject matter of the social and natural science is fundamentally different.
- The methods and assumptions of the natural sciences are inappropriate to the study of man, as it deals with matter.
- To understand and explain the behaviour of matter it is sufficient to observe it from the outside. Atoms and molecules do not have consciousness.
- But man has consciousness, feelings, thoughts etc. Because of this his actions are meaningful. Hence, he does not merely react to external stimuli but he acts based on the situation being conscious.
However, from a phenomenological perspective man does not merely react and respond to an external society, he is not simply acted upon acts. In his interaction with others, he creates his own meanings and constructs his own reality and therefore directs his own actions.
The Frankfurt School
- Positivism focuses on specific social issues rather than the complex totality of society.
- Positivism focuses only on things that can be observed and are therefore “on the surface”.
- Positivism attempts to discover facts about the social world and the criticism related to this idea is that facts themselves are social constructions.
- Positivism’s defence of scientific objectivity and value-neutrality is itself a value-commitment.
Feminist approach
- It considers positivism as an ideology of men without considering the women as constituent element.
- The positivist scientific epistemology is based on a liberal ideology which poses rational man producing objective knowledge of the natural world through scientific endeavour.
- Thus, intentionally or unintentionally science has systematically excluded the possibility that women could be the agents of knowledge.
- Women are either rendered invisible or are construed as inferior deviations of men.
- Feminists have shown how within social sciences, people are often assumed to be male.
Other Criticism of Positivist Methodology
- Experiments cannot be performed on humans.
- Difficult to control the thinking of humans.
- Quantification is difficult as only limited data is available.
- Prejudices and biases often intrude into research.
- Generalization is difficult as human behaviour cannot be predicted.
Previous Year Questions
- Critically examine positivistic approach in sociological studies. (2013)
- Examine the basic postulates of positivism and post-positivism. (2017)
- How far are sociologists justified in using positivist approach in understanding social reality? Explain with suitable illustrations. (2021)
- What are the shortfalls of positivist philosophy that gave rise to the non-positivist methods of studying social reality? (2022)
Important Keywords
Positivism, Philosophical Thought, Kieran Egan, Saint-Simon, Wilhelm Dilthey, Auguste Comte, Durkheim, Testable Questions, Theory and Model Building, “Facts Speak Themselves” Philosophy, Unity of Method with Natural Sciences, Objectivism, Value-neutrality and Frankfurt school.
